Main Cardiology Sections
Cardiovascular Physiology list
Pathophysiology list
Clinical Evaluation of Heart Disease list
Thoracic Radiograph Tutorial list
General Therapeutic Concepts list
Acquired Heart Disease list
Heartworm Disease list
Congenital Heart Disease list
Electrocardiology list
Echocardiography list
Structure and Function
Anatomy of the cardiovascular system
What is the role of the cardiovascular system?
What is the role of the heart?
What is the role of the systemic arterial system?
What is the role of the systemic venous system?
What is the role of the pulmonary arterial system?
What is the role of the pulmonary venous system?
How is the function of the pulmonary arterial tree different from the systemic arterial tree?
How does the anatomy of the pulmonary arterial tree differ from the systemic arterial tree such that it supports the difference in function between the two systems?
What is the role of the capillary beds?
What is the role of Starling forces?
What are the functions of the components of the heart?
What components of the cardiovascular system could be responsible for cardiovascular disease - or - where within the cardiovascular system could malfunction occur?
Edema Formation
What is edema?
Where does edema develop?
What factors promote the development of edema?
Lymphatics
What is the role of the lymphatic system?
How is lymph formed?
What factors promote the flux of fluid?
The student should be familiar with:
The Microcirculation
What are the transcapillary exchange mechanisms?
Identify the components of the microcirculation
Vascular Control
What are the factors that control BP?
What affects organ flow?
What factors affect peripheral vascular resistance (also called total peripheral resistance or systemic vascular resistance)?
What is the role of Baroreceptors (carotid/aortic arch) in BP control?
Role of atrial volume receptors:
What is syncope?
What are the causes of syncope?
Vascular Control
What is the role of Natriuretic Peptide?
The Cardiac Cycle
Identify the 3 components to diastole.
Wiggers Diagram:
Compensation for Circulatory Failure
How does the cardiovascular system respond to failure?
What is the response of the circulatory system in the case of Shock?
Why is the shock response counter productive for cases of cardiac disease causing a fall in BP?
How is the shock response counter-productive for cases of cardiac disease causing a fall in BP?
The Determinants of Myocardial Performance
What are the determinants of myocardial performance?
What is myocardial oxygen demand?
What factors affect MVO2?
What is Wall Stress?
What is Stroke Volume?
What is Cardiac Output?
How does heart rate affect myocardial performance?
What factors affect heart rate?
How do baroreceptors affect cardiac function?
How might an abnormality of heart rate manifest?
What is preload?
How is preload measured?
How does preload affect myocardial performance?
What is The Frank Starling Law of the heart?
What factors affect preload?
How might an abnormality of preload manifest?
How does the autonomic nervous system affect preload?
What is afterload?
What factors affect afterload?
What factors determine blood pressure?
What is pulse pressure?
What is perfusion pressure?
What factors affect the physical examination assessment of systemic BP?
How is afterload measured?
How does afterload affect myocardial performance?
What factors determine arterial resistance?
How might an abnormality of afterload manifest?
How does the autonomic nervous system affect afterload?
What is contractility?
What factors affect contractility?
How is contractility measured?
How does contractility affect myocardial performance?
How might an abnormality of contractility manifest?
How does the autonomic nervous system affect contractility?
What is distensibility?
What factors affect distensibility?
How is distensibility measured?
How does distensibility affect myocardial performance?
How might an abnormality of distensibility manifest?
How does the autonomic nervous system affect distensibility?
What is synergy of contraction?
How does dyssynergy of contraction affect myocardial performance?
How might an abnormality of synergy of contraction manifest?
How might an abnormality of synergy of contraction be resolved?
How does the autonomic nervous system affect synergy of contraction?
Neuro-Control of the Heart and Vasculature
What is the role of the autonomic nervous system?
What is the effect of activation of the autonomic nervous system?
What is the messenger of the SNS and PNS:
How does the SNS mediate its action?
How does the PNS mediate its action?
How do Beta receptors work?
How do Alpha receptors work?
How do Muscarinic receptors work?
Discuss the regulation of G protein coupled receptors:
Electro - Mechanical Association:
What occurs during the action potential with respect to Ca ions?
How does the process of vascular smooth muscle contraction differ from myocardial contraction?
Describe the process of relaxation.
Why might one want to increase contractility?
How can contractility be enhanced?
How does contractility occur?
What are the contractile proteins? Regulatory proteins? Structural proteins?
How does calcium mediate contraction?
What is the significance of the concept calcium induced calcium release?
What are the following terms:
The Electrical Side of the Heart
What is the role of the electrical system of the heart?
What are the components of the electrical system in the heart?
How does the horse and cow differ from the dog and cat with respect to the anatomy of their conduction system?
What is occurring during the components of the ECG?
Identify the lead systems used to obtain an ECG;
What is a lead?
In what capacity is the ECG a valuable tool in the assessment of cardiovascular disease in domestic animals?
What is an action potential?
How does a myocardial action potential differ from a skeletal muscle action potential?
What are the components of the myocardial action potential?
What is the refractory period?
Myocardial cells can be divided into automatic and non-automatic cells.
Causes of Heart Failure
Where is the abnormality?
General
What is heart failure?
What is congestive heart failure?
How is heart disease different from heart failure?
What is myocardial oxygen consumption?
How do changes in myocardial oxygen consumption alter cardiac performance?
What are the determinants of cardiac output?
What is preload?
How do changes in preload change cardiac performance?
How are changes in preload detected on physical examination?
What is afterload?
How do changes in afterload change cardiac performance?
How are changes in afterload detected on physical examination?
What is contractility?
How do changes in contractility change cardiac performance?
How are changes in contractility detected on physical examination?
How do changes in heart rate (HR) change cardiac performance?
What is distensibility?
How do changes in distensibility change cardiac performance?
How are changes in distensibility detected on physical examination?
What is synergy of contraction?
How do changes in synergy of contraction change cardiac performance?
How are disorders characterized by dyssynergy of contraction detected on physical examination?
What are the compensatory measures that occur in heart failure?
List the mechanisms that promote arterial vasoconstriction in Heart Failure
The Physical Exam
What are the historical findings in heart failure?
What are the physical examination findings in heart failure?
What are pulse deficits?
What is a hepato-jugular reflux (HJR) response?
How do I interpret the arterial pulse?
What diagnostic aids are available to evaluate the heart?
What abnormalities can be detected by cardiac palpation?
What can be learned from auscultation?
What are some important technical aspects about stethoscopes and auscultation?
What is the origin of the normal heart sounds, S1 and S2?
What are heart murmurs?
What causes heart murmurs?
Can heart murmurs occur in the absence of anatomic or physiologic changes to the heart?
How does the detection of a heart murmur help us determine the type of heart disease?
What are some special considerations for heart murmurs in cats?
What other abnormalities may be detected by cardiac auscultation and what is their significance?
Radiographic Evaluation
Can radiography diagnose heart failure and how?
What are the radiographic features of pulmonary venous distention and pulmonary edema?
What other cardiac abnormalities can be diagnosed by radiography?
What are the radiographic features of cardiac chamber enlargement?
How can vertebral heart size (VHS) be used to evaluate heart size?
What abnormalities of the great vessels might be identified by routine radiography?
What radiographic features might suggest the presence of heartworm disease?
Can radiography diagnose pericardial effusion?
Electrocardiographic Evaluation
Can electrocardiography diagnose heart failure and how?
What abnormalities can be diagnosed by the ECG?
Hematologic Evaluation
Can blood work diagnose heart failure?
What cardiac abnormalities can be diagnosed by blood work?
Why is BNP a potentially useful test in veterinary medicine?
Echocardiographic Evaluation
Can echocardiography diagnose heart failure?
What other abnormalities can be diagnosed by echocardiography?
What is Doppler echocardiography? How is it useful?
Thoracic Radiograph Evaluation
Radiopacity and Radiolucency
How does air appear radiographically?
Why do we do Thoracic Radiographs in Cardiology?
The Role of Starling Forces
The Role of the Lymphatic System
Thoracic Radiograph Evaluation of Left-Sided Heart Failure
Thoracic Radiograph Evaluation of Left-Sided Heart Failure
How do we assess pulmonary venous engorgement radiographically?
How do peribronchial patterns appear radiographically?
How do air bronchograms appear radiographically?
What do lobar signs look like radiographically?
Thoracic Radiograph Evaluation of Right-Sided Heart Failure
Thoracic Radiograph Evaluation of Right-Sided Heart Failure
What do Fissure lines look like radiographically?
How does one differentiate a fissure line from a lobar sign?
What does leafing of the lung lobes look like radiographically?
Other Thoracic Radiograph Observations
What do Cotton-like Densities look like radiographically?
Therapy of Heart Failure
What Are Some General Considerations in the Therapy of Heart Failure?
How is the Response to Heart Failure like that of Shock?
Outline the classes of drugs used to treat heart failure.
List common diuretics used to treat heart failure and list their advantages and disadvantages.
List common venodilators used to treat heart failure and outline their advantages and disadvantages.
List common arteriolar dilators used to treat heart failure and outline their advantages and disadvantages.
List common angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and outline their advantages and disadvantages.
List combined vasodilators used to treat heart failure and outline their advantages and disadvantages.
How can drug induced hypotension be detected?
List positive inotropes used to treat heart failure and outline their advantages and disadvantages.
List negative inotropes used to treat heart failure and outline their advantages and disadvantages.
List beta-blockers used to treat heart failure and outline their advantages and disadvantages.
What have we learned from the veterinary clinical heart failure trials?
How should I treat congestive heart failure?
How should I treat the patient with fulminant pulmonary edema?
How would the authors treat the patient with severe congestive heart failure on an outpatient basis?
How should the patient with refractory heart failure or refractory ascites due to systolic dysfunction be treated?
Should I treat the patient that has heart disease without heart failure with the goal of improving survival?
What is the prognosis with therapy for heart failure?
General
Dog Breed Predilections
Chronic Mitral Valve Insufficiency (CMVI) - What is it?
How does chronic mitral valve insufficiency present?
How is chronic mitral valve insufficiency diagnosed?
How is chronic mitral valve insufficiency treated?
What is the prognosis with chronic mitral valve insufficiency?
What is cardiomyopathy?
What is the etiology of canine dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)?
How does canine dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) present?
How is canine dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) diagnosed?
How is canine dilated cardiomyopathy treated?
What is the prognosis with canine dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)?
What is feline dilated cardiomyopathy?
What is the etiology of feline dilated cardiomyopathy?
How does feline dilated cardiomyopathy present?
How is feline dilated cardiomyopathy diagnosed?
How is feline dilated cardiomyopathy treated?
What is the prognosis with feline dilated cardiomyopathy?
What is feline thromboembolic disease?
What is feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?
How does feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) present?
How is feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) diagnosed?
How is feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy treated?
What is the prognosis for feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM)?
What is feline restrictive cardiomyopathy?
Are there other forms of feline cardiomyopathy?
What is feline hyperthyroidism?
How does feline hyperthyroidism present?
How is feline hyperthyroidism diagnosed?
How is feline hyperthyroidism treated?
What is the prognosis with feline hyperthyroidism?
How does Boxer Cardiomyopathy differ from canine dilated cardiomyopathy?
Does hypertrophic cardiomyopathy occur in the dog?
Pericardial disease: what types of disorders are there?
Pericardial effusion - What is the abnormality?
How does pericardial effusion present?
How is pericardial effusion diagnosed?
What is cardiac tamponade?
How is pericardial effusion treated?
What is the prognosis with pericardial effusion?
What is constrictive pericardial disease?
What is pericardial disease in the cat?
Bacterial endocarditis - What is the abnormality?
How does bacterial endocarditis present?
How is bacterial endocarditis diagnosed?
How is bacterial endocarditis treated?
What is the prognosis with bacterial endocarditis?
General
What is canine Heartworm Disease?
Discuss the mechanisms of disease induced by heartworm infection.
How does canine Heartworm Disease present?
How is canine Heartworm Disease diagnosed?
How is canine Heartworm Disease treated?
What is the prognosis with canine Heartworm Disease?
How does feline heartworm disease differ from canine heartworm disease?
What is Occult Heartworm Disease?
How does Occult Heartworm Disease present?
How is Occult Heartworm Disease diagnosed?
How is Occult Heartworm Disease treated?
What is the prognosis with Occult Heartworm Disease?
General
Dog Breed Predilections
Congenital heart disease - general features about shunts
Patent ductus arteriosus: What is the abnormality?
How does patent ductus arteriosus present?
How is patent ductus arteriosus diagnosed?
How is patent ductus arteriosus treated?
What is the prognosis with patent ductus arteriosus?
Aortic Stenosis: What is the abnormality?
How does aortic stenosis present?
How is aortic stenosis diagnosed?
How is aortic stenosis treated?
What is the prognosis with aortic stenosis?
Pulmonic Stenosis: What is the abnormality?
How does pulmonic stenosis present?
How is pulmonic stenosis diagnosed?
How is pulmonic stenosis treated?
What is the prognosis with pulmonic stenosis?
Ventricular Septal Defect: What is the abnormality?
How does ventricular septal defect present?
How is ventricular septal defect diagnosed?
How is ventricular septal defect treated?
What is the prognosis with ventricular septal defect?
Tetralogy of Fallot - What is the abnormality?
How does Tetralogy of Fallot present?
How is Tetralogy of Fallot diagnosed?
How is Tetralogy of Fallot treated?
What is the prognosis with Tetralogy of Fallot?
How does congenital heart disease of cats differ from that of dogs?
What are the causes for syncope?
General
What is a P wave? What electrocardiographic event does this represent?
What is the PR interval? What is the significance of the PR interval?
What is the significance of the QRS complex? How are a Q, R, S, and QS different?
What is a T wave? What is the significance of a T wave?
What is the significance of a positive deflection in a lead? Of a negative deflection in a lead?
What is the frontal plane diagram? What are the horizontal plane leads?
What is the significance of the MEA of the QRS complex?
Why should I bother determining the MEA?
What is a sinus rhythm?
What is a sinus arrhythmia?
What is a wandering atrial pacemaker?
Chamber Enlargement
Approach to the ECG to determine chamber enlargement
What is the significance of a P wave that is too tall or too wide?
What are the electrocardiographic criteria of left ventricular enlargement?
What are the electrocardiographic criteria of left ventricular concentric hypertrophy?
What is the electrocardiographic evidence of right ventricular enlargement?
Normal ECG Parameters
Normal ECG Diagram
Normal Small Animal Electrocardiographic Parameters
Dysrhythmias
Approach to the ECG to assess dysrhythmias.
Bradycardias
What is bradycardia?
What is sinus bradycardia?
What is heart block?
What is 1st degree Heart Block?
What is 2nd degree Heart Block?
What is 3rd degree Heart Block?
What is Sick Sinus Syndrome?
Tachycardias
What is sinus tachycardia?
What are supraventricular premature beats?
What is supraventricular tachycardia?
What is atrial fibrillation?
What are ventricular premature contractions?
When should I begin therapy for premature ventricular contractions?
What is ventricular tachycardia?
Outline criteria to assist in the differentiation of supraventricular and ventricular premature beats.
Miscellaneous
What are the electrocardiographic signs of hyperkalemia?
What are the electrocardiographic signs of myocardial hypoxemia/ischemia?
What is the significance of low amplitude QRS complexes in the dog?
What is the significance of wide QRS complexes?
What is aberrancy?
Differentials for Abnormalities on the ECG
Indications in Small Animals
How does Doppler Echocardiography detect semilunar valve insufficiency?
How does Doppler Echocardiogrpahy detect atrio-ventricular valvular insufficiency?
Can Doppler Echocardiography provide insight into the severity of valvular heart disease?
How is the Doppler Echocardiographic examination different from the routine echocardiographic examination?
How does Doppler Echocardiography assist with the identification of cardiac disease?
What is Doppler Echocardiography?
Is Echocardiography an invasive procedure?
What is Two-dimensional Echocardiography?
What other disorders can be detected with Doppler Echocardiography?
What is M-mode Echocardiography?
How does Doppler Echocardiography shed light on the presence of diastolic disease of the ventricle?
What is Echocardiography?
How does Doppler Echocardiography detect semilunar valve stenosis?
What are the Standard Transthoracic Echocardiography Views?
How does Doppler Echocardiography detect atrio-ventricular valve stenosis?
Examples to Demonstrate Diagnostic Values
Congenital Heart Disorders
Acquired Disorders
Normal M-Mode Parameters
Normal M-Mode Echocardiographic Parameters